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Freedom of the press in the United States is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. This clause is generally understood as prohibiting the government from interfering with the printing and distribution of information or opinions, although freedom of the press is subject to some restrictions, such as defamation law. The Free Press Clause protects the right of individuals to express themselves through publication and dissemination of information, ideas and opinions without interference, constraint or prosecution by the government.〔 This right was described in ''Branzburg v. Hayes'' as "a fundamental personal right" that is not confined to newspapers and periodicals. In ''Lovell v. City of Griffin'' (1938),〔''Lovell v. City of Griffin'', 〕 Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes defined "press" as "every sort of publication which affords a vehicle of information and opinion."〔''Lovell'', at 452〕 This right has been extended to media including newspapers, books, plays, movies, and video games. While it is an open question whether people who blog, Twitter or use other social media are journalists entitled to protection by media shield laws, they are protected equally by the Free Speech Clause and the Free Press Clause, because neither clause differentiates between media businesses and nonprofessional speakers.〔 This is further evidenced by the United States Supreme Court who constantly refused to accord greater First Amendment protection to the institutional media than to other speakers.〔See ''Bartnicki v. Vopper'', 532 U.S. 514 (2001) where the U.S. Supreme Court "draw no distinction between the media respondents and" a non-institutional respondent.〕〔See ''Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.'', 501 U.S. 663 (1991) where the U.S. Supreme Court held that the press gets no special immunity from laws that apply to others, including those—such as copyright law—that target communication.〕〔See also ''Henry v. Collins'', 380 U.S. 356, 357 (1965) (per curiam) (applying ''Sullivan'' standard to a statement by an arrestee); ''Garrison v. Louisiana'', 379 U.S. 64, 67–68 (1964) (applying Sullivan standard to statements by an elected district attorney); ''New York Times Co. v. Sullivan'', 376 U.S. at 286 (applying identical First Amendment protection to a newspaper defendant and individual defendants).〕 For example, in a case involving campaign finance laws the Court rejected the "suggestion that communication by corporate members of the institutional press is entitled to greater constitutional protection than the same communication by" non-institutional-press businesses.〔''First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti'', 〕 As famously said by journalist A. J. Liebling, "Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one."〔Liebling, A. J. "Do you belong in journalism?", The New Yorker (14 May 1960)〕 The individuals, businesses, and organizations that own a means of publication are able to publish information and opinions without government interference, and cannot be compelled by the government to publish information and opinions that they disagree with. For example, the owner of a printing press cannot be required to print advertisements for a political opponent, even if the printer normally accepts commercial printing jobs. In 1931, the U.S. Supreme Court decision in ''Near v. Minnesota'' used the 14th Amendment to apply the freedom of the press to the States. Other notable cases regarding free press are: *''New York Times Co. v. United States'' (1971): The Supreme Court upheld the publication of the Pentagon Papers. *''New York Times Co. v. Sullivan'' (1964): The Supreme Court held that when a publication involves a public figure, in order to support a suit for libel, the plaintiff bears the burden of proving that the publisher acted with "actual malice," meaning that the publisher knew of the falsity of the statement or acted with reckless disregard as to the truth of the statement. It was for the first time ruled by a decision of The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit that a blogger is entitled to the same free speech protections as a traditional journalist and cannot be liable for defamation unless the blogger acted negligently. The Ninth Circuit court essentially said journalists and bloggers are one and the same when it comes to the First Amendment〔 because the "protections of the First Amendment do not turn on whether the defendant was a trained journalist, formally affiliated with traditional news entities, engaged in conflict-of-interest disclosure, went beyond just assembling others' writings, or tried to get both sides of a story."〔 ==Ranking of United States press freedom== Freedom House, an independent watchdog organization, ranked the United States 30th out of 197 countries in terms of press freedom.〔https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press-2014/press-freedom-rankings〕 The report lauded the constitutional protections afforded American journalists, but criticized authorities for placing undue limits on investigative reporting in the name of national security. Freedom House awards countries a score out of 100, with 0 representing most free and 100 representing least free. The score is broken down into three, separately weighted, categories: legal (out of 30), political (out of 40), and economic (out of 30) environments. The United States scored a 6, 10, and 5 respectively. This gave it a cumulative score of 21.〔https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2014/united-states〕 As of February 12, 2014, the United States is ranked 46th in the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index.〔http://rsf.org/index2014/en-index2014.php〕 This is a measure of freedom available to the press, encompassing areas such as government censorship, and not indicative of the quality of journalism. There was a fall from 20th in 2010 to 42nd in 2012, which was attributed to arrests of journalists covering the Occupy movement. For 2012, Finland and Norway tied for 1st worldwide. Canada ranked 10th, Germany tied 17th with Jamaica, and Japan tied 22nd with Suriname. The UK ranked 28th, Australia 30th, and France 38th. Extraterritorial regions of the US ranked 57th. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Freedom of the press in the United States」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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